Quantum Temporal Institute

Genetic Paradoxes in Mixed-Race Individuals: Over-100% Ethnicity Interpretations and PCA Map Alignment Alexander Ohnemus Los Rios Community College District ohnemusalexander@gmail.com Author Note Alexander Ohnemus is an independent researcher and student at Los Rios Community College District. This essay synthesizes personal genetic analyses to explore broader implications for mixed-race identity. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Alexander Ohnemus, Elk Grove, CA, USA. Email: ohnemusalexander@gmail.com Abstract Commercial DNA testing often yields probabilistic ethnicity estimates that can lead to paradoxical interpretations, such as a mixed-race individual appearing to exceed 100% in one ethnic category through alternative calculations. This essay posits that such paradoxes indicate a strong alignment with that ethnicity on principal component analysis (PCA) maps, which visualize genetic clustering. Drawing on autobiographical case studies, including a mixed Northwestern European-Southeast Asian-Chinese heritage, evidence suggests that high archaic DNA and low genetic diversity in minority ancestries minimize divergence from the dominant cluster. This challenges racial essentialism and supports an anti-racist view of genetics as fluid constructs. Implications for identity and genomic research are discussed. Keywords: genetic paradoxes, mixed-race identity, PCA maps, ethnicity estimates, anti-racism Introduction Advancements in commercial DNA testing have democratized access to genetic ancestry information, allowing individuals to explore their heritage through ethnicity estimates derived from autosomal DNA comparisons to reference populations (Royal et al., 2010). However, these estimates are probabilistic and subject to interpretation, often leading to paradoxes in mixed-race individuals. For instance, alternative calculations—such as maximizing percentages of one ethnicity while minimizing others—can yield results exceeding 100%, defying biological plausibility but highlighting underlying genetic affinities (Ohnemus, 2024a). This essay examines the claim that when a mixed-race person’s DNA test allows for an interpretation of over 100% in one ethnicity, that individual likely best fits that ethnicity’s cluster on a PCA map, which plots genetic variation based on allele frequencies to reveal population structures (Novembre & Stephens, 2008). PCA maps are valuable for visualizing how individuals align with global or regional genetic clusters, often revealing counterintuitive proximities despite mixed ancestries. Using autobiographical examples from a series of preprints (Ohnemus, 2024a, 2024b, 2024c, 2024d), this analysis focuses on a case of 74% Northwestern European, 25% Southeast Asian, and 1% Chinese ancestry. The paradoxes arise from mutational load, archaic DNA admixture, and low genetic diversity in non-European components, reinforcing alignment with Northwestern European (e.g., Anglo-Saxon) clusters. This synthesis underscores the social construction of race and advocates for anti-racist interpretations of genetics. The Nature of Ethnicity Estimates and Genetic Paradoxes Ethnicity estimates from platforms like Ancestry.com are not absolute but statistical inferences based on comparisons to reference panels, which can introduce biases due to population sampling and algorithmic assumptions (Jobling et al., 2016). In mixed-race individuals, these estimates can produce paradoxes when reinterpreted. For example, by summing maximum possible percentages of one ethnicity (e.g., Western European) and subtracting minima of others, results can exceed 100%—a mathematical artifact rather than a biological reality (Ohnemus, 2024a). In the examined case, initial calculations suggested 116% Western European ancestry, attributed to high mutational load (exemplified by autism) and differences in Neanderthal DNA between ethnic groups (Ohnemus, 2024a). Southeast Asians exhibit higher combined Neanderthal and Denisovan admixture (up to 6% Denisovan in Melanesian-admixed populations) compared to Europeans (Reich et al., 2011; Wall et al., 2013). This archaic DNA, being recessive to modern human variants, may amplify perceived European affinities in calculations, creating the over-100% paradox. However, subsequent analyses rejected this literal interpretation, emphasizing instead that such paradoxes signal deeper genetic alignments (Ohnemus, 2024b). Factors contributing to these paradoxes include: Mutational Load: Elevated de novo mutations, linked to conditions like autism, can skew ethnicity interpretations by introducing unique variants not captured in reference panels (Iossifov et al., 2015). Archaic Admixture: Higher Neanderthal (2–2.5%) and Denisovan DNA in East and Southeast Asians reduces genetic distance to European clusters, as shared archaic substrates minimize divergence (Lipson et al., 2018). Low Genetic Diversity: Southeast Asian and Chinese ancestries rank among the lowest in diversity due to historical bottlenecks, limiting the “pull” away from dominant European clusters (Li et al., 2008). These elements transform apparent overestimations into indicators of PCA proximity. PCA Map Alignment in Mixed-Race Contexts Principal component analysis reduces high-dimensional genetic data to visualize population clusters, with individuals plotting closer to groups sharing allele frequencies (Novembre & Stephens, 2008). In mixed-race cases, PCA positioning can defy autosomal percentages if minority ancestries have stabilizing effects. The autobiographical example illustrates this: Despite only 74% Northwestern European ancestry (including non-Anglo-Saxon elements like Celtic or Germanic), the individual clusters closest to Anglo-Saxon populations on global PCA maps (Ohnemus, 2024b). This alignment persists due to the 25% Southeast Asian component’s high archaic DNA and second-lowest genetic diversity, alongside the 1% Chinese ancestry’s lowest diversity and second-highest archaic admixture (Li et al., 2008; Reich et al., 2011). These factors anchor the profile nearer to British clusters, as confirmed by studies like the People of the British Isles project, which highlight variability in Anglo-Saxon-influenced regions (Leslie et al., 2015). Further evidence from haplogroup analysis supports this. Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, tracing direct paternal and maternal lineages, align exclusively with Northwestern European origins (e.g., R1b and H haplogroups), suggesting recent admixture introduced Asian components without disrupting core lineage clustering (Ohnemus, 2024c). Phenotypic observations reinforce PCA fit: The individual’s appearance ranges from “Black Irish” (darker, Iberian-influenced) to “pure Anglo-Saxon” (lighter, Northern European), influenced by lighting and environmental factors (Ohnemus, 2024d; Jablonski & Chaplin, 2010). This spectrum mirrors British genetic diversity from historical migrations (Olalde et al., 2018), where over-100% paradoxes in DNA interpretations correlate with Anglo-Saxon PCA proximity. Implications for Anti-Racism and Genetic Identity The claim that over-100% interpretations predict PCA alignment challenges racial essentialism, viewing “race” as population-level variations (extended families) shaped by mutations, bottlenecks, and admixtures rather than hierarchies (Ohnemus, 2024a). In the case study, racialized characteristics derive from Neanderthal-Denisovan-modern human divergences, blurring boundaries and supporting anti-racism (Henn et al., 2015). Ethical considerations, such as avoiding stigmatization of mutational loads (e.g., autism), are emphasized in peer reviews of the works (Ohnemus, 2024a). Broader implications include refining genomic methodologies to account for paradoxes in mixed-race data, reducing biases in reference panels, and promoting empathetic discourse on identity (Royal et al., 2010). This synthesis demonstrates how personal genetics can dismantle outdated racial notions, fostering unity through shared evolutionary history. Conclusion When mixed-race individuals’ DNA tests permit over-100% interpretations of one ethnicity, it signals strong PCA alignment with that group, driven by archaic admixture, low diversity, and mutational factors. The autobiographical examples—spanning paradoxical calculations, PCA positioning, haplogroups, and phenotypes—validate this claim, highlighting genetics’ role in anti-racist narratives. Future research should explore similar cases across diverse populations to refine understandings of human diversity. References Henn, B. M., Botigué, L. R., Bustamante, C. D., Clark, A. G., & Gravel, S. (2015). Estimating the mutation load in human genomes. Nature Reviews Genetics, 16(6), 333–343. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg3931 Iossifov, I., O’Roak, B. J., Sanders, S. J., Ronemus, M., Krumm, N., Levy, D., Stessman, H. A., Witherspoon, K. T., Vives, L., Patterson, K. E., Smith, J. D., Paeper, B., Nickerson, D. A., Dea, J., Dong, S., Gonzalez, L. E., Mandell, J. D., Mane, S. M., Murtha, M. 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